BYWATERSEEDR8100-11 EMILIA BYWATERS Scholarly Literature Review

LITERATURE REVIEW – DRAFT 2BYWATERSEEDR8100-11EMILIA BYWATERSScholarly Literature Review1Dr. GambinoLiterature Review – Draft 2For this assignment, develop a second literature review draft. Include the revisions in response to faculty feedbackfrom the first literature review draft as well as the additional sources added from Assignment 10, which should includeat least 15 scholarly references.Length: 12-15 pages (include an additional page(s) containing APA formatted references)Emilia, your lit review is not addressing the content, format and structure of a literature review.In this work, you are sharing more of a fact list rather than a literature review. PLEASE reviewthe sample dissertation I recently shared. In that sample, please look at the lit review.Your review should be a coherent, organized, and logical narrative that uses sources to argue thatthere is a meaningful gap in the current theory and research in your topic area that your studywill address. Your review should be in the form of a conceptual arrow that points to the need fornew research exactly the research that you propose! It is an important showcase yourunderstanding, interpretation, and analysis, clarity of thought, synthesis, and development of thecontent. The process of conducting and reporting your literature review can help you clarify yourown thoughts about your study. It can also establish a framework within which to present andanalyze the findings.After reading your literature review, it should be clear to the reader that you have up-to-dateawareness of the relevant work of others, and that the research question you are asking isrelevant. However, don’t promise too much! Be wary of saying that your research will solve aproblem, or that it will change practice. It would be safer and probably more realistic to say thatyour research will ‘address a gap’, rather than that it will ‘fill a gap’.It is important that your literature review is more than just a list of references with a shortdescription of each one. The Study Guides: What is critical reading? and What is critical writing?are particularly relevant to the process of critical reviewPlease review: http://pareonline.net/pdf/v14n13.pdfTom GambinoLiterature Review Draft 22Teacher Mobility and Retention: A Review of the LiteratureThis literature review is divided into three main parts. The introduction summarizes theproblem, purpose, and major findings of the review. The second part covers related studiesarranged by topics pertaining to teacher turnover such as mobility and retention factors, ways toincrease retention and diminish mobility. The conclusion wraps up the findings, coverssuggestions and provides recommendations to policy makers and future researchers.IntroductionTeacher turnover is a global issue that contributes to teacher shortage and costs school districtstime and money in recruiting, hiring and retaining quality teachers (Ingersoll & May, 2012;Lynch, 2012; Hartwick & Kang, 2013; Carton & Fruchart, 2014; McInerney et al., 2015; Ost &Schiman, 2015). Teachers leave or stay in a school for reasons tied to their personalcharacteristics and school characteristics (Xiaofeng, 2007; Martinez et al., 2010; Hughes, 2012;Sass et al., 2012; McInerney et al., 2015; Wells, 2015). Past literature put the teacher attritionrate between 40 to 50% by the fifth year with an annual cost of $2.2 billion dollars (Ingersoll,2001; Hughes, 2012; Ingersoll, 2012). A new study conducted by the National Center forEducation Statistics by tracking attrition rate of a cohort group of 245,000 teachers since 2008found only 17% had left the profession after five years of teaching (Long, 2015). Way back inthe 1980’s, this number was about 12% (Luekens et al., 2004). The recent cost of attrition wasestimated at $7,500 per teacher (Kavanagh, 2016). Teacher mobility can be divided into threegroups: movers, stayers, and leavers (Ingersoll & May, 2012). Ingersoll (2001) referred toattrition as describing those teachers who left the profession.Literature Review Draft 23MethodologyIn conducting this review, the search consisted predominantly of current peer-reviewed sourcesfrom the North Central University Library search engine and various data bases. On occasions,for statistical purposes, using google, visits to the following federal or state organization siteswere used: American Association for Employment in Education (AAEE), U.S. Bureau of theCensus, National Council on Teacher Quality, Texas Center for Educational Research, the LaborDepartment, The Alliance for Excellent Education, National Center for Education Statistics, TheInstitute of Education Sciences, the Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S.Congress – Loan Forgiveness, Center for Education Policy Analysis (CEPA), National EducationAssociation (NEA), Texas Education Agency (TEA), The National Center for EducationEvaluation and Regional Assistance, Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences(IES), and Mathematica Policy Research, Inc. (MPR). Although a strong emphasis was placed oncurrent sources, other older sources such as those provided by Ingersoll, were used for thepurpose of completing crucial content and context of the review.Review of Related StudiesThe related studies’ topics in this second section of the literature review are divided into twoparts: factors contributing to mobility and retention in addition to ways to improve retention andreduce teacher mobility. The top researches that cover the widest range of periods throughout thisreview are those of researcher Ingersoll for the years 1997, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2011, and 2012.Other valuable studies are the work of Borman and Downling who cover the review period of1980 to 2005. Guarino et al. cover the review between 1990 and 2004. Visieu covers literaturebetween 1990 and 2014. Other studies also contributed a great deal to this literature review.Mobility and Retention FactorsLiterature Review Draft 24Teachers make decision to leave or stay based on personal teacher’s characteristics or schoolcharacteristics, also known as work conditions (Xiaofeng, 2007; Martinez et al., 2010; Hughes,2012; Sass et al., 2012; McInerney et al., 2015; Wells, 2015).Teacher CharacteristicsDemographicsDemographics reasons in this review will refer to gender and race. These factors cannot bemodified by neither the teachers themselves nor the administrators. The genders are male andfemale while the race are white and minority ethnic (African American, Asian, and Hispanic).The age demographic will be included in the section for experience.GenderResearch shows that more female teachers leave the profession than the male counterparts at aratio of 2 to 1 (Mancuso et al., 2011; Long, 2015; Adnot et al, 2016). The majority cite childbirthas the primary reason for leaving either temporarily or permanently. A quantitative andqualitative data with statistics experiment in Sweden of 87 cohort teachers from the same teachertraining professor, 64 women and 23 men, concluded that the first five years, more women leftthe teaching field (Lindqvist et al., 2014). When the childbearing factor was taken out of theequation, the study showed no gender difference in mobility rate.RaceMinority teachers tend to have higher attrition than white teachers (Ingersoll & May, 2011;Mancuso et al., 2011). A conflicting result was shown on a research by Kearney (2008) whereAfrican American teachers’ retention rate was higher. This was due to the strategies used by theurban school district in to attract and keep these minority teachers, inferring that the strategy toretain this group of teachers lies in creating future similar programs (Ingersoll & May, 2011).Literature Review Draft 25OthersSome teachers move in order to achieve personal career goals such as pursuing graduate studieswhile others leave for immediate or extended family reasons such as relocation (Heineke et al.,2014).ExperienceTeachers in this category are divided into new or novice, experienced and those who are nearretirement (Martinez et al., 2010). The new teachers are considered as those with five or lessyears of experience. The experienced teachers are those with more than five years of experiencebut not near retirement. The near retirement teachers are those over 51 years old (Guarino et al.,2006).New TeachersMany new teachers have emotional issues and high stress when dealing with the profession ingeneral, leading to higher attrition than experienced teachers below 50 years of age (Guarino &Theobold, 2006; Mancuso et al., 2011; Lee& Nia, 2014). Herreira & Martinez (2012) surveyed281 new elementary teachers from 80 private and public Portuguese schools and concluded thatthe higher the probability of stress and burnout, the more likely a teacher was to abandon the job.The earlier part of a teacher’s career consistently showed more attrition on a review conductedby Scheopner (2010) of 200 Catholic school teachers in the U.S. and 300 catholic schools, 47catholic schools in Chile, 1000 teacher surveys in California, 50 first and second year teachers inMassachusetts, 1066 teacher leavers in London, 18,700 U.S. national households. The quality ofteacher training at standard universities has not declined despite the decrease in the number ofthose graduating with a degree in teaching (Long, 2015).Experienced TeachersLiterature Review Draft 26Experienced teachers under the age of 50, beyond the fifth year of teaching have the lowestattrition rate compared to the novice and those nearing retirement (Guarino et al., 2006). A 48item questionnaire was given to a group 125 French teachers from 11 primary schools in thedistrict of Nord-Pas-de-Calais in France (87 women and 38 men) by Carton & Fruchart (2014) todeduce how experienced teachers coped with job stress, one of the leading factors of highattrition. This group of teachers handled stress better than the novice, the study found, as theyrelied on themselves and experience, using avoidance, escape, confrontation, or detachment, inorder to cope.Teachers Nearing RetirementA literature review by Borman and Downling (2008) concluded that teachers over the age of 51,that is, near retirement, were 2.5 times more likely to leave than those who were younger than50. This desire to retire early was due to attractive retirement packages and insurance benefits(Ingersoll & May, 2011).TrainingTraining refers to the teachers’ degree or area of study, certification, scores on standardized tests,and the type of university attended.Degree or Area of StudyMath and sciences teachers were found to leave the teaching profession more in order toseek better paying non educational jobs (Adnot et Al., 2016; Visieu et al., 2016). An analysis ofthe turnover rate of the Dallas Independent school district was conducted for the year 2010-2011.The findings were that the district lost one third of its top math teachers(http://www.disdblog.com/2014/02/17/teacher-turnover-in-dallas-isd-executive-summary-of-thereport/).Literature Review Draft 27Certification ProgramTeachers who received their certification through alternative programs had higher attrition ratesthan those who attended conventional universities (Heineke et al., 2014). When four studieswere conducted on alternative certification programs, inconclusive results were obtained whenonly two of them showed that their attrition was higher than the normal university certificationtraining, leading research for thirst for more studies in the subject (Guarino et al., 2006).Standardized Test ScoresTeachers who scored higher on standardized tests or possessed advanced degrees had lowerretention rate as they tend to seek better paying job outside of teaching (Visieu et al., 2016,Adnot et al., 2016).Universities AttendedResearch also shows that teachers who graduate from prominent or prestigious universities likeHarvard and Princeton are more likely to leave to pursue other careers or move to better schools(Boyd, Grossman, Ing, Lankford, Loeb, & Wyckoff, 2011). Researchers inferred that math andscience teachers, those who scored high on tests, and those who attended top universities felt thatthey had more choices outside to leave to than the other teachers (Visieu et al., 2016, Xiaofeng,2005).School CharacteristicsType of SchoolLiterature Review Draft 28Research shows that schools with high minority students, high number of low income students,charter schools, low performing schools, poor facility, and poor resources schools have higherattrition rate (Falch & Ronning, 2007; Mancuso et al., 2011; Ingersoll & May, 2012; Johnson etal., 2012; Synar & Maiden, 2012; Lee& Nia, 2014). Using a data of 481, 718 teachers providedby the state of Texas from 1988 to 2010, Sass et al. (2012) conducted a study using survivalanalyses. The results showed high attrition between high stakes-testing era, low-performingschools, and charter schools. A review by Scheopner (2010) of 200 Catholic school teachers inthe U.S. and 300 catholic schools, 47 catholic schools in Chile, 1000 teacher surveys inCalifornia, 50 first and second year teachers in Massachusetts, 1066 teacher leavers in London,and 18,700 U.S. national households concluded that low income and smaller private schoolssuffer the most attrition.School OrganizationSchool organization or working conditions include support by the leadership team and the schoollearning community, compensations, student discipline, and teacher compensations and teachingassignments (Boyd et al., 2011; Sass et al., 2012; McInerney et al., 2015). A study of 65 newlyhired preschool teachers, 37 lead teachers and 28 assistants from ten Head Start Centers from amajor city in the Midwest of the United States of America concluded that those who did not liketheir working environment were more likely to quit (Wells, 2015).Leadership SupportLeadership support implies allowing teachers to have an opinion on issues, includingcurriculum choices in their classrooms within the framework of the district or state’s learningobjectives (Lynch, 2012; Sass et al., 2012). Teachers are likely to stay in schools with supportingworking conditions. This support comes from the decision makers and the professional learningLiterature Review Draft 29community (McInerney, Ganotice, Kin, Marsh, & Morin, 2015). A teacher is likely to leave anenvironment where he or she feels that the leaders do not value his or her opinion (Lynch, 2012).Leadership support was the primary reason to retain teacher in Singapore when a study of 304teachers, 68.3% Chinese, 19% Malays 19.0%, 9.7% Indians, and 3.0% other, was conducted(Lee & Nia, 2015).Compensations (Salary & Benefits)Compensations include benefits, salary, and financial incentives (Hendricks, 2015).A recent student by the National Education Association found that those teachers who makeabove $40,000 dollars annually have a higher probability remaining in teaching than those withsalaries lower than that (Long, 2015). Unfortunately, salary alone has not been a very goodreason for teachers to stay, especially teachers of high needs schools (Johnson et al., 2012).Offering financial incentive at hiring time may attract teachers, however, over the years, theprobability of them staying just because of the financial bonus decreases (Synar & Maiden,2012). With the medical cost rising every year, teachers whose medical benefits are adequatehave more probability of staying instead of leaving their jobs (Boyd et al., 2011).Teaching AssignmentTeaching assignment can turn into a reason for a teacher to walk away and not renew his or hercontract. Elementary teachers who are given the same grade to teach are more likely to return totheir jobs (Ost & Schiman, 2015). When teachers are asked to teach the same grades or classesyear after year, they become more familiar with the curriculum and it cuts stress and planningtime tremendously (Ost & Schiman, 2015). Teachers who are asked to teach subjectsthey are not certified in end up feeling frustrated and incompetent and eventually, most of themleave the school, adding to more attrition (Lee& Nia, 2014).Literature Review Draft 210Impact of Teacher attritionLosing teachers is a cost paid by schools, teachers, and students. These costs are not justfinancial, but also organizational and psychological. Teacher shortage numbers increase asteachers abandon their campuses (Hendricks, 2015). The remaining teachers on campus paytheir price by not knowing other colleagues professionally well enough to collaborate on schoolissues (Mancuso, Roberts, Weston, White, & Yoshida, 2011). Teachers who leave the professionpay the price of stress associated with moving (Lee& Nia, 2014). Students pay the highest priceof mediocre education in the hands of less qualified staff who may have been hired just to have asubstitute teacher (Mancuso, Roberts, Weston, White, & Yoshida, 2011). The decrease in thequality of instruction plays a negative role on student achievement (Lee& Nia, 2014; Lynch,2012). The entire professional learning community suffers as a result of losing teachers throughmobility or turnover. The community at large is not immune either as parents do not know theirchildren’s teacher due to the lack of staff continuity (Lee& Nia, 2014).Suggested Factors to Increase Retention and Decrease AttritionResearch proposes hiring quality teachers, and providing leadership support and financialincentives to maintain the teaching working force (Martinez et al., 2010). Some studies suggestmeditation or religion to combat stress, thus, increasing job satisfaction, leading to high teacherretention (Hartwick & Kang, 2013).Quality TeachersLiterature Review Draft 211Hiring quality teachers is essential to providing quality instruction that every student deserves(Visieu et al., 2016). This can be achieved by carefully screening qualified candidates, investingtime and money into the hiring process (Ingersoll & May, 2012).Leadership SupportLeadership support has been the primary factor that brings teachers back to the same school(Mancuso et al., 2011). All teachers can be supported with professional development andclassroom issues such as discipline (Visieu et al., 2016). Experienced teachers can use thetraining as a refresher while the novice can better practice the training they learned in teacherpreparation programs or schools (Guarino, 2006; Mansuco et al, 2011). New teachers, inparticular, can be supported by having mentors with whom they can meet regularly in regards tocurriculum and social issues (Ingersoll & May, 2012; Lynch, 2012; Wells, 2015). According tothe National Center for Education Statistics’ new study of the 2008 cohort group of teachers,92% of those who had first year mentors stayed in the classroom while only 84% of those whodid not have mentors remained in the profession. By the third year, 84% of the first group withmentors were still teaching compared to 71% of the second group (Long, 2015).Financial IncentivesLiterature shows that financial incentives have worked in increasing retention in some studies(Visieu et al., 2016 ). Research also points out, however, that factors other than financial usuallyplay a bigger role in a teacher’s retention intention (Imazeki, 2005; Visieu et al., 2016). Schoolsneed to be aware of this limitation when offering financial rewards (Visieu et al., 2016).Meditation and ReligionLiterature Review Draft 212Some studies are turning to religion in order to help teachers cope with the stress of teaching(Hartwick & Kang, 2013). These teachers use spiritual practices such as prayer and reading thebible in order to handle stressful work situations. Most Americans rely on their faith when itcomes to handling certain stressful situations (Hartwick & Kang, 2013). Thus, when faced withissues of managing their relationships with other staff and administrators, some teachers turn tospiritual practices. Stressful situations include students’ lack of motivation to learn, English as asecond language students, and students with disability (Carton & Fruchart, 2014; Hartwick &Kang, 2013). Teachers must be cautious when using this method in public schools due toseparation of religion and state.ConclusionAlthough the war on teacher attrition may never be won globally, mobility can certainly bedecreased while retention can be increased through better leadership style and teacher support.Certain teacher characteristics are uncontrollable by decision makers but school related issuescan certainly be improved by supporting new teachers through induction and mentorshipprograms, providing training to all teachers through professional development, and attending toother organizational issues such as salary, benefits, and student discipline. No recipe is attritionfree. A combination of strategies used by administrators concerned about teacher mobility andretention should help better keep our teachers from moving elsewhere and stay in their currentpositions. Borman and Downling suggest researchers use more longitudinal data on teachers thatfocuses on evidence over time. Furthermore, the latter researchers caution the limitation ofsolutions for attrition. Instead, they suggest to focus on those factors that can be manipulated inan effort to bring about more retention such as working conditions through leadership supportand financial incentives.Literature Review Draft 213ReferencesAdnot, M., Katz, V., & Wyckoff, J. (2016). Teacher Turnover, Teacher Quality, and StudentAchievement in DCPS (CEPA Working Paper No.16-03). Retrieved from:http://www.nber.org/papers/w21922.pdfLiterature Review Draft 214Borman, G. D., & Dowling, N. M. (2008). Teacher attrition and retention: A meta-analytic annarrative review of the research. Review of Educational Research,78(3), 367-409. Retrievedfrom: http://search.proquest.com.proxy1.ncu.edu/docview/214114076?accountid=28180Boyd, D., Grossman, P., Ing, M., Lankford, H., Loeb, S., & Wyckoff, J. (2011). The Influence ofSchool Administrators on Teacher Retention Decisions. American Educational ResearchJournal, 48(2), 303-333. DOI: 10.3102/0002831210380788.Burridge, A., Lowrey, S., Horn, C. March 2016. Staying in the Field: Teacher Retention Patternsin Texas. Center for Research, Evaluation, & Advancement of Teacher Education.Houston: The Institute for Education Policy Research & Evaluation, University ofHouston.Carton, A., & Fruchart, E. (2014). Sources of Stress, Coping Strategies, Emotional Experience:Effects of the Level of Experience in Primary School Teachers in France. EducationalReview, 66(2), 245-262. Doi: 10.1080/00131911.2013.769937.Falch, T., & Rønning, M. (2007). The Influence of Student Achievement on TeacherTurnover. Education Economics, 15(2), 177-202. Doi:10.1080/09645290701263104Ferreira, A. I., & Martinez, L.F. (2012). Presenteeism and Burnout among Teachers in Publicand Private Portuguese Elementary Schools. International Journal of Human ResourceManagement, 23(20), 4380-4390. Doi:10.1080/09585192.2012.667435Guarino, C. M., & Theobald, N. D. (2006). Teacher recruitment and retention: A review of therecent empirical literature. Review of Educational Research, 76(2), 173-208.HARTWICK, J. M., & KANG, S. J. (2013). Spiritual Practices as a Means of Coping with andAmeliorating Stress to Reduce Teacher Attrition. Journal of Research On ChristianEducation, 22(2), 165-188. Doi:10.1080/10656219.2013.808979Heineke, A. J., Mazza, B. S., & Tichnor-Wagner, A. (2014). After the Two-Year Commitment:A Quantitative and Qualitative Inquiry of Teach For America Teacher Retention and Attrition.Urban Education, 49(7), 750. doi:10.1177/0042085913488603Hendricks, M. D. (2015). Towards an optimal teacher salary schedule: Designing base salary toattract and retain effective teachers. Economics Of Education Review, 47143-167.Doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2015.05.008Hughes, G.D. (2012). Teacher Retention: Teacher Characteristics, School Characteristics,Organizational Characteristics, and Teacher Efficacy. Journal of Educational Research,105(4), 245-255. doi:10.1080/00220671.2011.584922Imazeki, J. (2005). Teacher salaries and teacher attrition. Economics Of Education Review,Literature Review Draft 21524431-449. doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2004.07.014Ingersoll, R. M., & May, H. (2012). The Magnitude, Destinations, and Determinantsof Mathematics and Science Teacher Turnover. Educational Evaluation & PolicyAnalysis, 34(4), 435. doi:10.3102/0162373712454326Inger…